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The following best management practices (BMPs) are intended as general guidelines for the conservation of many species present in Wyoming. Because these BMPs have been developed for a broad geographic area, each described BMP will not always be the most applicable or desired management practice available. BMPs provide a foundation for developing customized management plans that benefit at-risk species and meet landowner's specific goal. Implementing management practices that increase habitat heterogeneity and restore or maintain natural disturbance patterns will improve wildlife habitat while preserving productive agricultural operations in Wyoming.
This section includes BMPs for grassland, sagebrush and riparian habitats.
Description of Partners in Flight: Partners in Flight is a cooperative partnership among
federal, state and local government agencies, philanthropic foundations, professional organizations, conservation groups, industry, the academic community, and private individuals.
Partners in Flight focuses resources on the improvement of monitoring and inventory, research,
management, and education programs involving birds and their habitats.
Grazing:
Ø Use grazing systems that contain rotation, deferment, and rest to produce a mosaic of habitat patches and increase the density, height, and distribution of native grasses to benefit a variety of grassland species. For example, allowing large acreages of grasslands to go to a climax successional stage will benefit species such as the Long-billed Curlew, Short-eared Owl, Upland Sandpiper, Dickcissel, Chestnut-collared Longspur, Grasshopper Sparrow, and Bobolink. Additionally, areas of short grass and open ground provide habitat for species such as Mountain Plover, McCown’s Longspur, Long-billed Curlew, Short-eared Owl, and Burrowing Owl.
Ø To benefit area-sensitive birds, maintain pasture treatments in areas larger than 125 acres (51 ha), and preferably 250 acres (101 ha) or more. Fifty acres (20 ha) or less will benefit birds that are the least sensitive to area size (e.g. Dickcissel).
Ø If pastures smaller than 50 acres (20 ha) are the only option, they should be as numerous as possible and spaced no further apart than 1 mile (1.6 km).
Ø Develop water and shade in upland areas to help spread grazing pressure. Keep in mind, however, that small birds can drown when they fall into stock tanks and troughs while drinking. Provide escape ramps to prevent drowning.
Ø Eliminate or limit tree planting in the shortgrass prairie ecoregion. Tree planting in shortgrass prairie habitats increases nest parasitism by cowbirds, as well as predation by crows, grackles, and jays.
Ø If pest control is necessary, follow the principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) to determine the best course of action. For more information about IPM, click the links below.
EPA IPM Fact Sheet
Western IPM Center
Ø In suitable Mountain Plover range, consider fixing leaking or overflowing livestock water tanks. Overflow areas promote use by Killdeer and discourage use by nesting Mountain Plover.
Ø Nest survival of grassland birds is often only 30% or less due to numerous hazards of ground nesting. To help increase grassland bird nest survival, manage for a “nesting refuge”, which modifies the current practice of deferring grazing in some pastures for hay production. Nesting refuges can produce more young birds per acre than rotational grazing because of more nesting pairs and greater nest survival. Those able to defer grazing in any portion of their pasture system for six weeks or more in May and June can significantly increase the productivity of the grassland bird community on their land. Recommended guidelines for managing nesting refuges are as follows. a) Set aside a contiguous area up to 1/3 of the total pasture area, at least 10 to 20 acres (4 to 8 ha) in size, that is not disturbed between May 15th and June 30th (when most grassland bird nests are active), while the remaining acreage is rotationally grazed. b) Locate refuge pastures away from trees, buildings, and crop fields to minimize disturbance and reduce the potential for predation and cowbird nest parasitism. c) In some areas, refuge pastures may be grazed lightly before May 15th. d) Defer grazing for six weeks or more between mid-May and early July. e) Graze or mow as desired no earlier than July 1st through the end of the grazing season.
Farming:
Ø Many grassland wildlife species also use agricultural fields during various phases of their life cycle. In fact, subirrigated native hay fields provide some of the state’s best nesting habitat for many wetland birds, such as the Wilson’s Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus), or grassland birds such as the Long-billed Curlew (Numenius americanus). This is especially true of fields that have not been leveled and are not under intensive management with machinery and chemical treatment.
Ø Retain crop residue on the soil surface. Use reduced tillage and no-tillage agricultural methods, and refrain from burning crop residue. Residue sustains populations of arthropods that are food for a variety of birds, and it provides cover for foraging and nesting birds.
Ø Use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) to control undesirable weeds and insects. IPM will reduce destruction of non-target arthropods that are food for many species of birds and minimize exposure of birds to harmful chemicals. Most species of grasshoppers require bare ground to lay and hatch eggs; using minimum or no-till practices will reduce the need for insecticides.
Ø Limit activity in the field during the breeding season (April 15th through July 15th), minimize the number of field operations that destroy nests, and, where possible, use farming methods that destroy fewest nests, such as subsurface tillage or no-tillage.
Ø In hayfields, delay spring mowing as long as possible (preferably until nesting ends in late July), avoid night time mowing, and space mowings as widely as possible in time to allow the greatest probability of successful nesting. (However, even haying after July 15th may not protect late nesters such as the Dickcissel, Bobolink, Grasshopper Sparrow, and Short-eared Owl.) Consider growing alfalfa for seed or use late maturing legumes instead of traditional alfalfa management; this would allow cuttings to be delayed.
Ø Mow or plow a pasture or field starting in the middle, then proceed toward the outside so skulking birds will not concentrate in the center of the pasture and get run over by farm machinery; this will give them a chance to flee instead.
Ø If adult birds are flushed while working in your fields, slow your equipment down to give flightless young a chance to escape.
Ø In uncultivated areas, such as fencerows or grassed waterways, avoid mowing and spraying with herbicides wherever possible. Necessary field operations, such as thinning woody plant growth in fencerows or mowing grassed waterways, should be carried out either before April 15th or after July 15th (the main avian breeding season) to prevent destruction of nests.
Ø Preserve uncultivated edges (e.g. grassy strips) and allow them to develop a natural vegetation structure. Complex strip vegetation is used by many species of birds; it also reduces soil erosion and movement of agricultural chemicals off of fields.
Ø Maintain the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) by planting plots with native species and, rather than plowing to plant annual crops, use the lands for haying (after nesting) or compatible livestock grazing. Whenever possible, cluster CRP fields to create larger expanses of native habitat.
Ø Maintain or enhance farmland diversity. This can be done in several ways. a) Maintain unmowed grassed strips within fields for grassland birds that do not nest near edges. Grassy strips would also be refuges for arthropods, which are food sources for birds. b) Increase crop diversity by adding to the number of crops rotated. c) Create or increase the size of planted or “weedy” fallow fields; this is a good alternative for areas that are difficult to access or have low productivity. d) Reduce cultivated field sizes by using land removed from production; e.g. CRP land could be allocated to strip cover within fields or along field edges to reduce field sizes. e) Preserve and protect actual or potential wetlands by encircling them with broad buffer zones of natural vegetation. f) Provide small, randomly placed scrapes [15 to 30 ft2 (4 to 8 m2)] in fields or grasslands 10 to 20 acres (4 to 8 ha) or larger to expose bare ground for nesting, foraging, and dust bathing sites.
Ø Use soil-conserving practices where cropland erosion is a concern, such as crop residue management, contour tillage, strip cropping, and land retirement. Use agricultural practices that promote organic matter in the soil to maintain soil quality and productivity, promote water infiltration, and reduce runoff. Organic matter enables the soil to hold nutrients and water, support microbes, and maintain the proper structure and texture for plant growth. Agricultural cropping, rotation, and tillage systems can be used to maintain or increase organic matter content.
Ø For landowners who both farm and ranch, use intensive rotational grazing, which converts row crop and alfalfa acreage to pasture and has the potential to provide significant high quality habitat for grassland birds.
Ø To maintain your site as grassland habitat and discourage invasion by woody plants, mow, burn, or lightly graze sections of your site in rotation. Mow or hay at the end of the second growing season after seeds have set (July) and before fall precipitation. (To provide nesting and winter habitat for birds, mow or hay every other year or every three years, in rotation.) Conduct low-intensity prescribed burns every year for the first few years, then every three to five years, in rotation. Initiate grazing three to five years after your site has become established. Use a deferred rest-rotation grazing system that leaves one pasture per year ungrazed, concentrates the impacts of grazing, and limits livestock access during the breeding season for birds.
Ø Control nonnative weeds in your grassland through intensive mowing, hand-pulling, grazing, or herbicides. In some sites, prescribed burning may enhance native plant growth and reduce nonnative, invasive weeds.
Fire:
Ø In areas known to support nesting birds, prescribed burns should not be conducted until fall to avoid loss of nesting cover. To retain adequate residual cover for ground nesting birds the following spring, burns should be relatively small so a portion of the area contains nesting cover at all times.
Ø Time of year is a major burn prescription component for obtaining desired results. Burns should be conducted when preferred plants are dormant. Warm season grasses, like buffalograss and blue grama, benefit from a spring burn. Cool season grasses, like bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, western wheatgrass, and prairie junegrass, benefit from a fall burn following their growing season. Forbs typically benefit from fall burns (especially forbs that grow from rootstocks) and are negatively impacted by spring burns. From a wildlife standpoint, seasonal timing of a burn can be critical. For example, ground-nesting birds like the Greater Sage-Grouse and Chestnut-collared Longspur can be severely impacted if burns are conducted between April and August. To prevent negative impacts to wildlife and still provide habitat benefits, conduct prescribed burns in fall or early spring. d) Burning Plan – Clearly define how the prescribed burn will be carried out on the ground. Include components such as fuel treatments and fire lines to ensure the fire will carry into all areas to be burned, will not burn too hot or flare up, and will be contained within natural or constructed boundaries (at least 10 feet (3 m) wide, or 50 feet (15 m) wide or more for downwind fire lines).
Mining and Oil/Gas Development:
Ø Avoid placing mines, oil and gas drill sites, sand or gravel pits, geothermal sites, and roads in or next to sensitive habitats such as raptor nest sites on cliffs and outcrops; or riparian areas, springs, and other wetland habitats.
Ø Reduce the impact of construction and operations on raptor nest sites with buffers and timing restrictions. Contact state or federal wildlife agencies for local advice on appropriate buffers and timing.
Ø Ensure that ponds containing mining wastes are closed off to exclude birds, bats, and other wildlife attracted to the water. Flagging, reflectors, and strobes are not effective because animals become habituated to these deterrents. It is necessary to employ a technique, such as complete covering with metal or polypropylene mesh or eliminating ponds that will reduce or eliminate the possibility of wildlife entering disposal pits.
Ø Reclaim areas as soon as possible after activities are completed. This reduces the amount of habitat converted at any one time and speeds up the recovery of the grassland habitat.
Ø Avoid planting monocultures. Carefully plan for a complex of vegetation that reflects the diversity of plant species and habitats in the surrounding area. Reseed with local genetic seed stock, if available, and avoid using nonnative plant species that compete with native species. Provide topography similar to the surrounding area to provide microsites that promote a mosaic pattern.
Ø Fencing may be necessary to protect a site from both livestock and wild grazers, such as jackrabbits, until vegetation is well established. However, because of hazards posed by fences, determine their necessity on a case-by-case basis.
Ø To minimize the effects of continuous noise on bird populations, reduce noise levels to 49 dBA or less, particularly during the bird nesting season. Constant noise generators should be located far enough away from sensitive habitats such as grouse leks and raptor nests that the noise that reaches those habitats is less than 49 dBA. For example, the noise impact from drill rigs is greater than 49 dBA when the rig is closer than about 800 feet (250 m) to a receptor; impact from a 26,000 horsepower compressor station is greater than 49 dBA when located closer than about 2,500 feet (750 m) to a receptor. Avoid placing well pads, roads, and any other facilities requiring human presence within 825 feet (250 m) of raptor nests to prevent flushing adults from the nest. This buffer zone should be expanded in areas where prey are scarce, as raptors must spend more time searching for prey and may be less tolerant of disturbances. If necessary, implement mitigation measures to decrease continuous noise levels. For example, enclose compressor engines with buildings and install additional suppression around muffler exhausts. Noise barriers can be constructed at drilling and testing operations, and noise dampening around engines should be considered (including foam insulation around drilling rigs).
Ø Enhance habitat for birds and other wildlife by placing suitable rocks on reclaimed mined land. Rock should be placed in piles of varying sizes up to 6 feet (2 m) in height; rocks and rock piles should be grouped, as opposed to evenly scattered, over large areas with approximately 4 rock piles per acre (9 per hectare) taller than 3 feet (1 m); the minimum area to include outcrop habitats should be about 2.5 acres (1 ha); and shrub species should be planted in and around piles to encourage establishment of unique plant communities.
Vegetation Treatments:
Ø Sagebrush eradication treatments should not be practiced. However, thinning sagebrush to enhance forb and grass production while maintaining about 15-25% shrub cover could enhance grouse habitat.
Ø Treatments should be designed to create small patches surrounded by cover. Patch sizes should not exceed 250 acres in mountain big sagebrush or 100 acres in Wyoming big sagebrush. Attempt to create treated patches that are no wider than 400 feet. Thus relatively long, narrow strips may be considered. Patch sizes larger than these would be considered “large”.
Ø Small burns conducted in a mosaic pattern to enhance forbs and create a diversity of age classes of mountain big sagebrush may provide benefits. Use caution when conducting prescribed burning in Wyoming big sagebrush--there may be potential for invasion of cheatgrass and shrub recovery on these dry sites can be extremely slow. Be careful with fire, as removals of large expanses of sagebrush are detrimental to sage grouse and other sagebrush dependent wildlife.
Ø Mechanical methods such as mowing, aeration and harrowing may also be considered. When mowing make sure the mower height is adjusted high enough to prevent any young sagebrush from being impacted. When using the Dixie harrow, pass over the ground only one time. A twice over application is too severe to be considered a habitat improvement for sage grouse. The Lawson aerator is just beginning to be used in Wyoming following apparently successful implementation on the Deseret Ranch in northern Utah. As with prescribed fire, creating a patchwork of small treated areas is important. Equipment such as a Lawson pasture aerator, Dixie harrow and range pitter are available to rent from the WGF for a modest fee for well-designed projects that are approved by local WGF personnel.
Ø Only treat with mechanical methods where viable sagebrush seed was produced the fall before the treatment is to occur.
Ø The use of the herbicide Tebuthiuron (Spike) at sagebrush thinning rates has been shown to improve grass and forb production on treated sites without completely removing the sagebrush overstory. Careful planning and consideration of soil types and application rates is required to successfully implement this technique.
Ø The herbicide 2,4-D, once widely used in sagebrush eradication efforts, is not recommended for use during the growing season due to its detrimental impact to forbs. An exception would be for the control of noxious weeds.
Ø Do not treat more than 20% of an area that serves as nesting and early brood-rearing or winter habitat. Up to 40% of an area that serves as late brood-rearing habitat may be treated. Additional treatments in adjacent areas should be deferred until the previously treated area again provides suitable sage grouse habitat. The timing of treatments across an area should be such that a variety (mosaic) of age classes are maintained.
Ø Rehabilitation of disturbed sites should include the reestablishment of mixes of sagebrush and native grasses and forbs. A major aim is to prevent establishment of annual grasslands (cheatgrass). Protect the seeded areas from grazing until seeded species are well established.
Ø Range seedings should focus on establishing forbs and subspecies of sagebrush suited to various range sites. Native grasses that do not out-compete beneficial forbs and shrubs should be used in the seed mixtures. Seedings designed strictly to increase grass production are discouraged, especially monoculture seedings of crested wheatgrass and other non-native species. Use plant species adapted to the soil type, elevation and amount of precipitation on the site. Consider sage-grouse food habits when selecting forb species, with special consideration of legumes and the species with milky juice found in the Compositae family. Several local working groups have developed more specific information on seeding and reclamation practices.
Click here to see a list of plant species commonly used by sage grouse
Ø Remove juniper and other conifers where they have invaded sagebrush habitats. Remove saltcedar (tamarisk) and Russian olive from riparian areas, wet meadows and swales.
Ø Use extreme caution when considering treatments in Basin big sagebrush. Relatively small amounts of this habitat remain and it often serves as survival forage and cover for sage-grouse during severe winter conditions.
Ø Avoid removing sagebrush that is adjacent to riparian zones, meadows, lakebeds and farmland unless it is necessary to achieve habitat management goals. A 300-yard buffer is recommended. If removal of sagebrush from riparian zones is desired, plant willow or other riparian-adapted vegetation.
Ø Treated areas should be rested from livestock use until desired vegetation is firmly established. This is typically a minimum of 2 growing seasons. In drier sites (less than 12” of annual precipitation) it may take 3-4 years. Some managers have suggested livestock use following the first year’s seed set may aid in preparing a seed bed and trampling the seed into the soil. This practice has not been widely studied or validated.
Livestock Grazing:
Ø Livestock grazing should be managed to allow optimum growth of forbs, grasses and sagebrush. Manage for a variety of sagebrush cover densities depending on how the area is used by sage grouse: 10-30% sagebrush canopy cover for nesting, 10-15% sagebrush cover for early brood-rearing, 5-15% cover in summer habitat, or 20-35% in winter.
Ø The grazing system, grazing duration, kind of livestock, and stocking intensity should be adjusted to maximize the vegetative goals. In general, yearlong and spring-to-fall, continuous grazing schemes should be avoided. Better options could include increasing rest cycles in rest-rotation, two-crop short rotation (early spring before boot stage and fall after seed-set), deferred grazing or time controlled grazing.
Ø Manage livestock grazing, including dormant season use, to insure that adequate residual grasses remain for nest concealment. Grazing should be managed in nesting areas to promote native bunch grasses under the sagebrush canopy, with adequate forb and grass cover in the space between. Utilization of grass should not exceed 50%. Where improvement is desired, do not exceed 35% utilization.
Ø Adjust intensity, timing and/or duration of grazing during periods of forage drought.
Ø The above recommendations can largely be achieved by using the Grazing Response Index (GRI).
Click here to learn more about the GRI
Ø Livestock use around water sources, riparian areas and wet meadows in late brood-rearing areas should be controlled through fencing or herding to restrict overuse, thereby protecting riparian systems. However, moderate livestock grazing of meadows during the summer enhances the food quality for grouse. Initiate a program of reestablishment where meadows have been depleted. A properly functioning watershed should be the goal. Over time this often results in an increased water table and an expanded meadow. Maintaining adequate forb cover in riparian meadows should be a priority.
Ø Bluebunch wheatgrass, one of the most widespread of native bunchgrasses, is particularly sensitive to heavy grazing during the growing season. Where possible, avoid annual grazing of bluebunch during the growing season.
Ø In stands where cheatgrass and native perennial grasses are mixed, grazing during early spring when cheatgrass is sprouting but perennials are still dormant may allow the perennials to better compete with cheatgrass.
Ø Do not bed sheep on lek locations from mid-February through mid-May.
Ø Avoid growing season use in areas that receive less than 9 inches of precipitation per year because of the lack of opportunity for plants to regrow.
Ø Do not build fences adjacent to leks. Where grouse mortalities caused by fences are documented, alter fence design or improve visibility of the top wire. Commercial devices are available for this purpose but homemade devices as simple and inexpensive as aluminum beverage cans hung by wire from the top fence wire are also effective at reducing fence strikes. Let-down fences may also be used in pastures near leks from mid-February through mid-May in areas where fence strikes are frequent and the pastures are not being grazed at the time.
Water Developments:
Ø Water developments can decrease stock concentrations and distribute grazing more evenly across the range to prevent degradation. However, the tradeoff is that establishing new water can result in degradation of previously ungrazed or lightly grazed sites.
Ø Seeps and springs should be protected from livestock trampling to prevent damage to the spring, maintain water quality and enhance the growth of food forbs for sage grouse and other wildlife. Pipe spring water to a nearby tank for livestock use, but some water should remain on the ground for use by grouse and other wildlife.
Ø Escape ramps should be installed in stock tanks to prevent bird drowning. The Northeast Wyoming Local Sage-Grouse Working Group has developed a brochure that addresses this subject.
Click here to download the Northeast Wyoming Sage-Grouse Working Group's brochure
Insecticides:
Ø Reduce insecticide use wherever possible on sage-grouse spring and summer habitat. Insects such as ants, beetles and grasshoppers are essential for survival and normal development of chicks up to 3 weeks of age and are an important source of nutrition throughout the summer and fall. Furthermore, sage-grouse die-offs have been documented when exposed to organophosphorus insecticides applied to potato and alfalfa fields in areas occupied by sage-grouse.
Ø Where possible, adjust alfalfa harvest timing instead of applying pesticides to control weevils.
Ø Use the Reduced Area Application Treatments (RAATs) approach when using insecticide to control grasshopper outbreaks.
Click here to learn more about RAATs
Farming:
Ø Hay cutting can kill sage-grouse. The use of flushing bars and beginning in the center of the field and working out may help lessen this mortality.
Ø Avoid converting sagebrush habitats into grasslands or croplands.
Weeds:
Ø Act aggressively to reduce the establishment and expansion of weeds such as cheatgrass, leafy spurge, and spotted knapweed.
Ø Timing and intensity of livestock use (see grazing section) may be a valuable tool in weed control. The specific use of sheep and goats as biological controls may have utility. Cattle can also be trained to eat some weeds.
Ø Restoration of weed-impacted areas through seeding may be required.
Predators:
Ø Reduce or eliminate habitat features that attract or enhance populations of sage grouse predators. These habitats include dumps/waste disposal sites (including dead livestock) and structures that provide roosting and nesting habitat for ravens and crows.
Ø As with all management options, lethal control of predators should consider the need, effectiveness and cost of such controls.
Ø Consider the complexity of predator-prey relationships when developing predator control strategies. For example, lethal control of coyotes may enhance populations of more effective ground nesting bird predators such as red fox, skunks or raccoons.
Sagebrush BMPs were compiled from the following articles.
Wyoming Sage-Grouse Working Group. 2003. Wyoming Greater Sage-Grouse Conservation Plan. Wyoming
Game and Fish Department, Cheyenne, Wyoming.
Paige, C., and S. A. Ritter. 1999. Birds in a Sagebrush Sea - Managing Sagebrush Habitats for Bird
Communities. Partners in Flight - Western Working Group. Boise, Idaho.
Monsen, S. B., R. Stevens, and N. L. Shaw, comps. 2004. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. General
Technical Report. RMRS-GTR-136. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain
Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado.
Connelly, J. W., M. A. Schrodeder, A. R. Sands, and C. E. Braun. 2000. Guidelines for management of sage
grouse populations and habitats. Wildlife Society Bulletin 28:967-985.
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